SACRED DISINTERMEDIATION AND RELIGIOUS CONTROL - Elhem Beddouda - ETHICA SOCIETAS-Rivista di scienze umane e sociali

The Cult of the Saints, Shirk, and the Ritualization of Suffering across Christianity, Sunni Islam, and Shiism

Abstract: This article examines the cult of saints in Christianity and its rejection in Sunni Islam, interpreting them as expressions of divergent models of the relationship between the individual and the transcendent. While Christianity legitimizes forms of mediation through intercessory figures and collective rituals, Sunni Islam is based on the principle of tawḥīd (principle of the absolute oneness of God), excluding all forms of intermediation and categorizing such practices as shirk (improper association with God or attribution of divine powers to created entities). The study also explores the rejection of apotropaic objects, critiques of magical-religious practices, and the social implications of these phenomena, highlighting how Sunni disintermediation functions as a mechanism of religious control. A comparison with Shiism, particularly the ritualization of mourning during ʿĀshūrā, illustrates alternative models of managing suffering and memory, grounded in a collective and emotional dimension of religiosity.

Keywords: #Tawhid #Shirk #CultOfSaints #SunniIslam #Shiism #RitualMourning #Religiosity #ReligiousAnthropology #SociologyOfReligion #ReligionAndSociety #Sufism #PopularReligiosity #SocialControl #ReligiousAuthority #ReligiousSymbolism #ElhemBeddouda #EthicaSocietas #EthicaSocietasJournal #ScientificJournal #HumanSciences #SocialSciences #EthicaSocietasSupli

Elhem Beddouda, professional educator with a degree in Sciences of Education and Training Processes from the University of Parma, with a thesis entitled “Islam and the Educational Function. Perspectives on Religious Assistance in Prison”. She is currently enrolled in the degree programme “Global Studies for Sustainable Local and International Development and Cooperation” at the same university.

Italian version

Mediation and Construction of the Sacred in Christianity

In Christianity, particularly in Catholic and Orthodox traditions, the cult of saints constitutes a structural element of religious life and the symbolic organization of the sacred. Saints are not merely exemplary figures from the past but active presences in devotional practice, moral models, and, above all, intercessors between the believer and God. Their function does not replace divine worship but introduces a recognized form of mediation, allowing believers to articulate their relationship with the transcendent through human figures elevated as spiritual paradigms.

The cult of the Virgin Mary represents the highest expression of this dynamic: a non-divine figure that nevertheless assumes a central role in religious practice, making the sacred accessible through affective and symbolic proximity. From a sociological perspective, this mediated structure contributes to the construction of collective rituals, the transmission of memory, and the formation of shared identities.

Tawḥīd and the Rejection of Mediation in Sunni Islam

In stark contrast, Sunni Islam is based on a radically non-mediated conception of the relationship between humans and God. The principle of tawḥīd—the absolute oneness of God—is not merely a theological doctrine but a normative criterion regulating the entire religious field.

From this perspective, any form of intermediation—whether through people, living or deceased, or through objects or rituals—is generally interpreted as shirk, that is, an improper association with God. The majority of Sunni theological schools thus regard the cult of saints not as a legitimate variation of devotion but as a deviation that compromises the purity of monotheism.

The relationship with God must remain direct, individual, and non-delegable. There is no space for intercessory figures or symbolic systems that attribute an active role in human destiny to created entities.

De-animating the Sacred: Rejection of Objects and Apotropaic Practices

The logic of disintermediation extends systematically to material objects. In orthodox Sunni Islam, amulets, talismans, and apotropaic practices are rejected because they attribute causal efficacy to created entities.

Particularly significant is the rejection of the instrumental use of the Qur’an itself: its verses cannot be transformed into magical objects, worn, or employed as autonomous protective means. Their function remains confined to recitation and spiritual guidance, preventing any reification of the sacred.

Sociologically, this approach can be interpreted as an internal disenchantment of religion, in line with Max Weber’s perspective: the sacred is not eliminated but concentrated exclusively in the divine transcendence, depriving the material world of any spiritual autonomy.

Deviance, Magical-Religious Practices, and Exploitative Dynamics

When saint veneration emerges in Islamic contexts, it is often associated—with internal critical readings—with broader deviations toward magical-ritual religiosity. The attribution of powers to human or symbolic intermediaries can foster practices involving healers, spiritual operators, and charismatic figures who address existential needs such as illness, uncertainty, and social vulnerability.

This creates circuits of informal religious economy, in which the promise of supernatural intervention becomes a source of legitimacy and power. In some cases, these dynamics may take on sectarian characteristics: cognitive isolation, psychological dependency, and the delegation of individual autonomy to spiritual leaders.

Sunni critiques of these practices thus function not only as theological defense but also as attempts to limit exploitation and informal control within the religious field.

Sufism and Popular Religiosity: Internal Tensions within Islam

Despite the dominant position, the Islamic world exhibits a plurality of practices. In Sufi and popular contexts, saint veneration survives through shrine visits, invocations, and emotive rituals.

These practices, analyzed by scholars such as Clifford Geertz and Ernest Gellner, reveal tensions between “high” normative Islam and “popular” Islam, which addresses concrete needs for meaning, protection, and belonging. Nevertheless, they remain subject to critique by the Sunni majority, who consider them deviations from normative practice.

Shiism and the Ritualization of Mourning

In the Shiite context, the management of the sacred takes a profoundly different configuration. The commemoration of the martyrdom of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī during ʿĀshūrā constitutes a central moment in religious life. Mourning is ritualized through collective practices of weeping, lamentation, and memory, transforming suffering into a symbolic and identity-shaping device.

Here, pain is not solely an individual experience but a collective language through which the community expresses belonging and fidelity to a historical and religious narrative. The ritualization of mourning thus becomes a tool for social cohesion and the construction of memory.

Mourning, Emotion, and the Sunni Rejection of Ritualization

Sunni Islam is characterized by the rejection of such emotional ritualization. Suffering is conceived as a personal test, to be faced with patience (ṣabr) and acceptance (riḍā), and should not be institutionalized in collective forms.

Even emotions are withdrawn from a mediating function: ritualized weeping and public lamentation are not recognized as legitimate means of relating to the divine. In this sense, Sunni disintermediation encompasses not only people and objects but also the emotional dimension.

Conclusions: Three Models of Sacred Management

The comparison between Christianity, Sunni Islam, and Shiism highlights three distinct models:

A mediated model (Christian), based on intercession and ritualization;
A communal-emotional model (Shiite), grounded in shared memory and mourning;
A disintermediated model (Sunni), centered on direct relation to God and the rejection of all mediation.

Dis-animating the sacred in Sunni Islam thus emerges not only as a theological principle but also as a mechanism of social regulation, aimed at preserving the unity of worship and limiting the proliferation of intermediate authorities and potentially deviant practices.

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